A Framework for the Design of Ecological Monitoring Programs as a Tool for Environmental and Nature Management

Environmental and nature management can not operate effectively without reliable information on changes in the environment and on the causes of those changes. Ecological monitoring can represent an important source of information. However, many operational monitoring programs are not very effective, i.e., not very useful for decision-making. We present a conceptual framework for the development and maintenance of effective ecological monitoring programs. In the decisionmaking process, two main functions for monitoring can be recognized: an early warning and an early control function. Both these functions require a high diagnostic power. This is used as a guideline for the design process. The design consists of choices concerning monitoring objectives, objects and variables to be monitored, sampling strategy and design, data collection, data handling, maintenance and organization. Arguments commonly put forward in literature and in practice to support the various choices are subjected to a critical analysis. The framework will be helpful in the design of effective monitoring systems as it avoids important components to be overlooked, clarifies the relation between the different components, maximizes the exploitation of existing possibilities and opportunities and identifies shortcomings in advance. This will result in monitoring programs that should be able to live up to their expectations.